West Bank

The West Bank is a hilly, landlocked region bordered by Jordan and the Dead Sea to the east and by Israel and the Green Line to the west.[1] Its terrain is predominantly mountainous, with ranges running roughly north to south and reaching approximately 3,000 feet (about 1,000 meters) above sea level.[2] The highest elevation is Tall Asur at 1,022 meters, while the lowest point is the shoreline of the Dead Sea at −408 meters.[2] The western slopes of the central highlands receive moderate winter rainfall, supporting agriculture, while the eastern slopes descend toward the Jordan Valley and are largely arid.[2]

Strategically, the West Bank's elevated terrain overlooks Israel's central coastal plains.[5] The distance between the West Bank boundary and the Mediterranean Sea narrows to as little as eleven miles near Tel Aviv, nine miles near Netanya, and approximately one mile from Kfar Saba.[5] An aquifer beneath the mountain region supplies slightly more than one-third of Israel's water and provides the entirety of the water for the Yarkon and Taninim rivers.[5]

Area figures vary by source and geographic definition. Encyclopedia.com gives 5,880 square kilometers while also reproducing a figure of 5,860 square kilometers; the CIA-derived reference gives 5,860 square kilometers and notes that its definition includes the Latrun Salient and part of the Dead Sea.[1][2] The American Jewish Committee gives 2,183 square miles, while the Anti-Defamation League gives approximately 2,262 square miles.[3][6] The main urban centers include Hebron, Bethlehem, Ramallah, Nablus, Jenin, Jericho, Tulkarm, and East Jerusalem.[1]

The highlands of Judea and Samaria were the center of the ancient Jewish kingdoms, a history that a Ben-Gurion University research abstract identifies as a source of strong emotional attachment among supporters of Jewish settlement.[4] In Jewish historical terminology, the northern portion is known as Samaria and the southern portion as Judea, names rooted in the biblical kingdoms and used long before the modern term "West Bank."[3] The region contains major Jewish sacred sites, including the Cave of the Patriarchs in Hebron—described as Judaism's second-holiest site—the Tomb of Joseph, and Rachel's Tomb.[3] An Israeli Ministry of Intelligence document estimates that approximately 10,000 archaeological sites exist in Judea and Samaria, compared with approximately 3,000 within Israel's pre-1967 Green Line.[7]

The territory also has major religious and historical significance for Christianity and Islam, alongside its central place in Jewish history.[3] The convergence of sacred associations for the three religions contributes to the importance attached to its political status.

The territory was under Ottoman rule from the early sixteenth century through 1917, when British forces took control during the First World War. It subsequently became part of the British Mandate for Palestine.[2] The November 1947 United Nations partition proposal designated territory including the present-day West Bank as part of a proposed Arab state.[2]

After the 1948 War of Independence, the territory came under the control of Transjordan, later renamed Jordan.[6] On April 24, 1950, Jordan's parliament voted for "complete unity between the two banks of the Jordan"; only Great Britain and Pakistan recognized the annexation.[8][1] During the nineteen years of Jordanian rule, Jordan gradually unified the West Bank's legal and administrative systems with those of the East Bank, absorbing courts and administrative departments into their Jordanian counterparts.[1][6] A Jerusalem Center for Security and Foreign Affairs commentary states that Jordan first applied the name "West Bank" to distinguish the territory from the East Bank.[9]

During the Six-Day War in June 1967, Israel captured the West Bank, including East Jerusalem, from Jordan.[10] On June 7, an Israeli military proclamation assumed governmental, legislative, appointive, and administrative powers over the territory and its inhabitants.[1] On June 27, Israel extended its law, jurisdiction, and public administration to a 28-square-mile area that included the former 2.3-square-mile Jordanian municipal area of East Jerusalem.[1] Israel did not formally annex the remainder of the West Bank, which it governed through military orders.[1]

The United Nations Security Council adopted Resolution 242 on November 22, 1967. It called for a just and lasting peace based on the withdrawal of Israeli armed forces from "territories occupied in the recent conflict," termination of belligerency, recognition of regional states within secure and recognized boundaries, and a just settlement of the refugee problem.[11] The extent of the withdrawal contemplated by the resolution became a lasting interpretive dispute; Israeli legal writers emphasize that the English text does not call for withdrawal from "all" the territories.[12]

Under the Mapai government from 1967 to 1977, early Israeli settlements were established primarily along the Jordan Valley in accordance with border-security doctrine associated with the Allon Plan.[4] After the 1973 Arab-Israeli War, greater government flexibility toward territorial compromise contributed to the rise of Gush Emunim, which opposed such compromise and sought settlement throughout the West Bank, particularly in the Judean and Samarian highlands.[4] Largely rebuffed by the Labour government, the movement nevertheless established a foothold and, after Likud's 1977 election victory, expanded to a network of twenty settlements by the time of the cited 1981 study.[4] In 1992, Ma'ale Adumim, then with a population of 15,000, became the first Israeli city in the West Bank.[1]

The September 13, 1993 Declaration of Principles, commonly known as the Oslo Accord, marked the beginning of a transition to Palestinian self-rule. It was signed by Israeli Prime Minister Yitzhak Rabin and PLO negotiator Mahmoud Abbas.[13] Israel recognized the PLO as the representative of the Palestinians, while the PLO renounced terrorism and recognized Israel's right to exist in peace. The parties agreed to establish a Palestinian Authority that would assume governing responsibilities in the West Bank and Gaza Strip during a five-year interim period, followed by permanent-status negotiations on borders, refugees, and Jerusalem.[13]

The Palestinian Authority came into existence in 1994, when Israel withdrew from Jericho and most of the Gaza Strip.[13] Under the May 1994 Gaza-Jericho Agreement and the September 1995 Interim Agreement, Israel transferred numerous civil-government responsibilities to the Palestinian Authority, including education, health, taxation, social welfare, local government, commerce, industry, agriculture, and labor, in parts of the West Bank.[14] The September 1995 Taba Agreement divided the West Bank into areas under Israeli control, Palestinian control, and Israeli security responsibility combined with Palestinian civil administration. The January 1997 Hebron Protocol transferred most of Hebron to Palestinian control, and the October 1998 Wye Memorandum called for further Israeli withdrawals.[13]

Under the resulting framework, Area A constitutes approximately 17.5 percent of the West Bank and is formally under Palestinian administrative and security responsibility, although Israeli forces frequently conduct operations there.[15] Area B constitutes approximately 22.5 percent and is under Palestinian civil administration with Israeli security responsibility.[15] Area C constitutes approximately 60 percent and remains under Israeli administrative and security control; it includes Israeli settlements, and much of its land is designated as closed military zones or settlement zoning areas.[3][15]

An Israeli legal anthology states that, after Oslo II, approximately 98 percent of the Palestinian population in the West Bank and Gaza Strip was under Palestinian jurisdiction.[12] The arrangements were explicitly interim: the ultimate status of the territory, its borders, the parties' rights, and the status of Israeli settlements were reserved for permanent-status negotiations.[12][12]

The five-year target passed without a comprehensive peace agreement. The first intifada, which began in December 1987 in Gaza and spread to the West Bank, had already reshaped the political environment before Oslo.[1] The al-Aqsa Intifada began in September 2000, after which permanent-status negotiations stalled and Israel reoccupied a number of West Bank cities in 2002.[2][1] The A/B/C division nevertheless remained in use.

Population figures vary by date and geographic definition, particularly according to whether East Jerusalem is included. A CIA-derived reference estimated the West Bank's population at 2,900,034 in July 2020 and described it as predominantly Muslim, with Jewish and Christian minorities.[16] An earlier Encyclopedia.com estimate gave approximately 2.4 million residents in 2004, most described as Palestinian Arabs and Muslims, with approximately 10 percent identified as Palestinian Christians.[1]

The U.S. government estimated the Palestinian population at approximately 3 million in mid-2022.[17] A 2024 academic demographic report instead estimated 2,818,100 Palestinians in the West Bank at the beginning of 2024, expressly excluding East Jerusalem and residents living abroad for at least one year.[18] The differing definitions illustrate why current totals are not directly interchangeable.

Israeli Ministry of Interior data recorded approximately 502,991 settlement residents at the beginning of 2023 and 517,407 by December 31, 2023, excluding East Jerusalem.[19] A Jewish Virtual Library compilation estimated 541,085 Jews in 147 West Bank communities as of April 2026, excluding approximately 340,000 residents of Jerusalem's Old City and 22 surrounding communities that the page says are considered part of the West Bank by the international community.[20] A 2021 Israeli Ministry of Intelligence document estimated approximately 476,000 Jews in about 150 Area C settlements and an Arab population in Area C of 230,000 to 290,000, including approximately 27,000 Bedouins.[7]

Palestinian population centers are concentrated mainly in Areas A and B, while Palestinian agricultural lands and rural communities also extend into Area C.[19] Israeli settlements are located in Area C.[3][15]

Israeli settlements are Jewish communities established in the West Bank after the territory came under Israeli control following the 1967 war.[21] Settlement activity began under Labour governments, including in the Jordan Valley, and expanded after Likud's 1977 election victory and the rise of Gush Emunim.[4] The settlements are concentrated in Area C and are administered through a municipal system separate from that used by Palestinian towns and villages.[1]

The Anti-Defamation League estimates approximately 400,000 Israelis in 131 settlements and 97 outposts, while the Jewish Virtual Library estimated 541,085 Jews in 147 communities as of April 2026; the difference reflects both the dates and definitions used.[21][20] A 2022 State Department report stated that Israelis in the West Bank are subject to Israeli laws, legislation, and military ordinances, whereas Palestinians are primarily subject to Israeli military ordinances and, in relevant areas, Palestinian Authority law.[17]

Israeli legal and government arguments emphasize the Jewish people's historical connection to the territory, the League of Nations Mandate, prior Jewish residence, and the absence of previously recognized sovereign control.[12] The same legal account states that the Oslo agreements reserved the settlement question for permanent-status negotiations and contained no general provision freezing construction by either side.[12]

An Israeli Ministry of Intelligence document reports approximately 910 square kilometers of cultivated agricultural land in Area C, approximately 869 square kilometers designated as military zones, and approximately 223 square kilometers identified as nature reserves.[7] It estimates about 57 square kilometers of Jewish construction and 80 square kilometers of Arab construction, the latter containing nearly 60,000 structures.[7]

The West Bank's economy has historically been described as primarily agricultural with minimal industrial development.[1] Remittances from Palestinian workers employed in Israel and from the Palestinian diaspora have been important sources of income, while employment in the Palestinian Authority bureaucracy supported many families from the 1990s onward.[1] The Oslo process transferred responsibility for civil functions—including education, health, taxation, welfare, commerce, industry, agriculture, and labor—to the Palestinian Authority in parts of the West Bank.[14]

The West Bank barrier has substantial movement and economic effects. The State Department reported that 85 percent of the unfinished barrier was inside the West Bank rather than on the Green Line and that more than 11,000 Palestinians, excluding East Jerusalem residents, lived in communities west of it and had to pass through Israeli checkpoints to reach the remainder of the West Bank.[19] Israeli authorities also retained control over construction permits, demolitions, land access, movement, and military orders in Area C.[19]

Approximately 910 square kilometers of Area C are cultivated for agriculture.[7] Hebron illustrates the territory's layered administration: H1 is under Palestinian Authority control, while H2 is under Israeli military control and contains approximately 800 Israeli settlers.[22]

Israel constructed a security barrier during the al-Aqsa Intifada as an anti-terror measure. An Israeli legal anthology credits the barrier with helping to break the Palestinian suicide-bombing campaign.[12] The State Department reported that 85 percent of the unfinished barrier was located inside the West Bank rather than along the Green Line and that more than 11,000 Palestinians, excluding East Jerusalem residents, lived in communities west of it and had to pass through checkpoints to reach the remainder of the West Bank.[19]

Its routing has therefore remained the subject of legal and political dispute. Critics focus on the land and movement effects of sections built inside the West Bank, while Israel emphasizes the barrier's security purpose.[12][19]

Hebron is home to the Cave of the Patriarchs, traditionally associated with Abraham, Sarah, Isaac, and Jacob and described as Judaism's second-holiest site.[3][17] Bethlehem is a major Christian center, while the Tomb of Joseph and Rachel's Tomb are among the territory's principal Jewish holy sites.[3][17]

Jericho was included in Israel's first Oslo-era withdrawal in 1994.[13] Ramallah serves as the Palestinian Authority's administrative center, and Nablus is another major Palestinian city.[3] East Jerusalem, captured by Israel in 1967 and subjected to Israeli law and administration shortly afterward, is considered part of Israel's capital by Israel and is claimed by Palestinians as the capital of a future state.[1]

An Israeli Ministry of Intelligence document estimates that approximately 10,000 archaeological sites exist in Judea and Samaria, compared with approximately 3,000 inside Israel's pre-1967 Green Line.[7] Planning, zoning, and archaeology in Area C remain under Israeli responsibility under the Oslo framework.[23]

The legal and political status of the West Bank is contested. Israeli legal arguments describe the territory as disputed rather than occupied and emphasize Jewish historical ties, the League of Nations Mandate, the absence of previously recognized sovereign control, and the powers transferred to the Palestinian Authority under Oslo.[12][12] Many states, United Nations bodies, and international legal authorities instead describe the West Bank as occupied Palestinian territory and consider Israeli settlements inconsistent with international law, positions Israel rejects.[3]

Permanent-status questions—including borders, settlements, and Jerusalem—were deferred by the Oslo agreements.[12] Resolution 242 called for withdrawal from "territories occupied in the recent conflict," but Israeli legal writers argue that the omission of "all" means the resolution did not require withdrawal from every area captured in 1967.[11][12] Jordan's 1950 annexation had itself received recognition only from Great Britain and Pakistan.[1][8] A Jerusalem Center for Security and Foreign Affairs commentary states that Jordan later transferred its claim to the PLO and stripped most West Bank residents of Jordanian citizenship in 1988.[9]

Terminology reflects these competing narratives. "West Bank" refers to the territory's location west of the Jordan River and became common during Jordanian rule. "Judea" and "Samaria" are the historical Jewish names for the southern and northern portions, respectively; many Israelis use them, while Palestinians and much of the international community generally use "West Bank."[3]

The State Department reported 1,232 incidents of Israeli settler violence against Palestinians during 2023, including 871 attacks against property, 52 causing physical injury, and 134 causing both property damage and injury. It described this as the highest level recorded since the United Nations began reporting settler-related violence in 2005.[15]