Holy See–Israel Relations

The Fundamental Agreement brought diplomatic relations into a wider process of Catholic-Jewish reconciliation and created a framework for addressing the Catholic Church’s position in Israel.[1] Its commitments joined matters of state sovereignty and institutional rights with cooperation against antisemitism, racism, and religious intolerance.[2] The agreement also connected the bilateral relationship to practical concerns: religious worship, schools, charitable institutions, communications, property ownership, and the movement of Christian pilgrims to the Holy Land.[2]

The relationship has both diplomatic and religious dimensions, with distinct institutions serving each purpose.[2][4] The diplomatic framework provides for an Apostolic Nunciature representing the Holy See and an Israeli Embassy, while a separate religious dialogue links Israel’s Chief Rabbinate with the Vatican’s Commission for Religious Relations with the Jews.[2][4] The latter commission was established in 2002 following John Paul II’s visit to Israel and was described as meeting annually, alternately in Rome and Jerusalem.[4]

Recognition and reconciliation did not require the parties to settle every political or institutional question before establishing relations.[1] The 1993 agreement did not expressly resolve Jerusalem’s status and left important legal, economic, and fiscal issues for subsequent negotiations.[2] Its provisions nevertheless addressed religious institutions and holy places in ways directly relevant to Jerusalem, including protection of Catholic sacred places and respect for arrangements governing Christian holy sites where the Status Quo applies.[2][5]

Theodor Herzl’s 1904 request for papal support for Zionism and Jewish statehood was rejected by Pope Pius X.[6] In 1947, the Vatican supported internationalizing Jerusalem rather than recognizing Israeli sovereignty there.[7] Jerusalem remained a central subject of early contacts between Israeli representatives and the Holy See.[8][9]

In August 1949, Acting Secretary of State Monsignor Domenico Tardini supplied a United States representative at Vatican City with a statement asserting that “only complete internationalization of Jerusalem, its environs and all the Holy Places in Palestine” could secure a “true, fair, and lasting peace.”[8] Israeli Foreign Minister Moshe Sharett opposed placing approximately 100,000 Jews living in Jerusalem’s New City under an international regime.[8] His alternative combined international supervision of holy places and free access with internationalization of the Old City and arrangements for reaching holy places elsewhere.[8] The United States Department of State cautioned its representative against becoming an intermediary, lest this suggest American endorsement of Israel’s proposals.[8]

By December 1949, Israeli and Vatican representatives had held talks in Rome.[9] Sharett told the American secretary of state that the Vatican had not approved Israel’s proposals but remained willing to continue discussions; he also believed that opinion within the Vatican was divided over complete internationalization.[9] He advocated an arrangement with the United Nations, administered through a commissioner for the holy places, that would leave Israel and Jordan responsible for Jerusalem’s everyday practical affairs.[9]

Religious change gradually accompanied these diplomatic contacts.[10] In his account of the relationship, Israeli ambassador Aharon Lopez identifies Pope John XXIII’s removal of the phrase “perfidious Jews” from Good Friday prayers as an early turning point.[10] Lopez describes the Second Vatican Council’s 1965 declaration Nostra Aetate as rejecting collective Jewish responsibility for Christ’s crucifixion and declaring hatred of Jews incompatible with Church doctrine.[10] The subsequent establishment of diplomatic relations was connected to the changes in Catholic-Jewish relations following that declaration.[1]

Paul VI visited Jerusalem in 1964, becoming the first pope to set foot there, but the Vatican had not recognized Israel and he did not use the word “Israel” during the trip.[7] Public papal language shifted in later decades: John Paul II referred in 1980 to the Jewish people’s establishment of Israel and, in 1984, described security and tranquility in Israel as rights of the Jewish people.[7] In 1987, he declared that “the Jews have a right to nationhood, as do all other peoples, according to international law.”[7]

Lopez also emphasizes John Paul II’s 1986 visit to Rome’s Great Synagogue, the first papal visit to a synagogue, as an important gesture in the improvement of relations.[10] A crisis concerning the pope’s 1987 meeting with Austrian President Kurt Waldheim was followed by a meeting at Castel Gandolfo with an International Jewish Committee on Interreligious Consultations delegation.[11] John Paul subsequently publicly reaffirmed the Jewish people’s right to a homeland.[11]

In January 1991, the Holy See distinguished Israel’s existence from the question of diplomatic relations.[10] Lopez recounts its statement that it had never questioned Israel’s existence and recognized it implicitly, while treating formal relations as dependent on circumstances and assessments.[10] A contemporary account characterized the principal obstacles as juridical rather than theological, identifying territorial questions, Jerusalem, and the situation of Catholic institutions among the difficulties.[6]

The regional peace process provided the political setting for normalization.[1][12] Lopez argues that the Madrid Conference and ensuing negotiations made dialogue easier and that the Holy See did not wish to remain outside the developing peace process.[10] On 29 July 1992, the parties agreed to establish a Bilateral Permanent Working Commission to examine common interests and work toward normal relations.[2] Its discussions proceeded alongside Israel’s negotiations with Arab parties and intensified after the September 1993 Oslo agreement.[12] Negotiations for the Fundamental Agreement lasted approximately eighteen months.[1]

On 30 December 1993, Deputy Foreign Minister Yossi Beilin and Vatican Under-Secretary for Foreign Affairs Claudio Maria Celli signed the Fundamental Agreement in Jerusalem.[1] The accord’s preamble linked it to the commission established in July 1992 and provided a basis for developing future relations and continuing the commission’s work.[2] Beilin marked the occasion by declaring: “After 2,000 years, this is a very important move forward in the dialogue between the Jewish and Christian faiths. It was time for them; it was time for us.”[1]

The agreement specified that it would enter into force following the latter party’s notification of ratification and that full diplomatic relations would follow entry into force and the beginning of implementation.[2] Israel’s ratification is dated to 20 February 1994 and the Holy See’s to 7 March 1994.[3] On 15 June 1994, the parties publicly announced full diplomatic relations and the exchange of ambassadors.[12]

John Paul II began a five-day visit on 21 March 2000, with stops including Jerusalem, Bethlehem, and Nazareth.[13] His first official papal visit to Israel included meetings with political leaders and the chief rabbis, an encounter with Holocaust survivors at Yad Vashem, and the first papal visit to the Western Wall.[4][13] At Yad Vashem, he said: “Silence because there are no words strong enough to deplore the terrible tragedy of the Shoah.”[13] At the Western Wall, he placed a note asking forgiveness for Jewish suffering and pledging “genuine brotherhood with the people of the Covenant.”[13]

Benedict XVI visited Israel in May 2009, including Yad Vashem and the Western Wall in his itinerary.[7] President Shimon Peres invited Pope Francis to visit during a Vatican meeting in 2013, when Francis spoke against antisemitism.[7] Francis met Prime Minister Benjamin Netanyahu in December that year to discuss regional issues, including the Israeli-Palestinian peace process and Iran’s nuclear program.[7] His May 2014 visit marked the fiftieth anniversary of Paul VI’s 1964 journey and included appearances at Yad Vashem and the President’s Residence.[14]

On 4 September 2025, Pope Leo XIV received President Isaac Herzog at the Vatican in his first meeting with an Israeli head of state.[15] Herzog also met Secretary of State Pietro Parolin and Archbishop Paul Richard Gallagher, the Vatican’s foreign minister.[16] Their discussions covered hostages held by Hamas, antisemitism, Christian communities and other regional minorities, humanitarian conditions in Gaza, interreligious dialogue, and bilateral matters.[16] On 3 April 2026, Leo and Herzog spoke by telephone about the Iran war and the Passover and Easter holidays; their discussion included reopening diplomatic channels, Iranian missile attacks, and the safety of Christian communities in Lebanon.[17]

Article 2 of the Fundamental Agreement commits the parties to appropriate cooperation against antisemitism and racial and religious intolerance.[2] It reiterates the Holy See’s condemnation of hatred, persecution, attacks directed against Jews, and desecration of Jewish synagogues and cemeteries.[2] The agreement also promotes mutual understanding, tolerance, respect for human life and dignity, and peaceful resolution of conflicts.[1][2]

Religious freedom and conscience form another central commitment.[2] Israel recognizes the Catholic Church’s right to perform religious, moral, educational, and charitable functions, maintain institutions, and appoint and deploy personnel.[2] The Church, in turn, recognizes Israel’s right to exercise state functions, including safeguarding public welfare and safety.[2] The agreement reaffirms Catholic rights to establish and direct schools, operate health-care and social-welfare institutions, maintain communications media, and own property.[2] Catholic communications operate within a framework that also recognizes the state’s rights in that field.[5]

Article 4 requires respect for the Status Quo at Christian holy places where it applies and for the respective rights of Christian communities.[5] Protection also extends to the character of Catholic sacred places, including churches, monasteries, convents, and cemeteries, together with freedom of Catholic worship.[2][5] This protection covers more than the limited group of sites historically governed by the Ottoman-era Status Quo arrangement.[5] Israel also undertook to protect and respect Catholic sacred places.[2]

Article 5 records a shared interest in favoring Christian pilgrimage to the Holy Land.[2] Where coordination is necessary, the relevant Church and Israeli agencies are to consult and cooperate.[2] The provision does not expressly define pilgrimage as a legal right, although pilgrimage also falls within the agreement’s broader religious-freedom framework.[5] The agreement additionally promotes cultural and academic exchanges between Catholic institutions and Israeli educational, cultural, and research institutions.[2]

The Legal Personality Agreement signed on 10 November 1997 developed the institutional framework established in 1993.[18] It provided for Israeli law to give effect to the legal personality of the Catholic Church and specified Catholic entities, including the Latin Patriarchate of Jerusalem, designated Eastern Catholic patriarchates and dioceses, the Custody of the Holy Land, and Catholic institutes and other official bodies.[18] The accompanying list comprised approximately 1,130 bodies, with implementation conditional on Knesset legislation.[5] The agreement distinguished matters governed by Israeli law from internal ecclesiastical questions and matters concerning Church officials governed by canon law.[18]

Economic and fiscal negotiations were a separate continuing task.[2] The Fundamental Agreement called for good-faith negotiations on unclear, unsettled, or disputed property, economic, and fiscal matters, with an intended agreement within two years after negotiations began.[2] Talks addressed tax exemptions for churches, monasteries, convents, educational institutions, and social-welfare organizations, as well as access to Israeli courts.[19] The State Department’s 2010 religious-freedom report said those negotiations continued through the end of its reporting period.[19] A commission proposal in 2017 remained unsigned, although the commission reported progress and expressed hope for an early conclusion.[3]

Dialogue between religious authorities developed along a separate track.[4] John Paul II’s Western Wall prayer asking forgiveness for suffering inflicted on Jews became a prominent public gesture of reconciliation.[13] A permanent bilateral commission linking Israel’s Chief Rabbinate and the Vatican’s Commission for Religious Relations with the Jews was proposed by John Paul II and established in 2002 following his visit.[4]

The 1993 agreement was a watershed both in Israel’s relations with the Catholic Church and in Catholic-Jewish reconciliation.[1] It linked recognition of the Jewish state with a broader process of reconciliation and mutual understanding between Catholics and Jews.[1][2] Its emergence after Nostra Aetate and during the Oslo peace process reflected the convergence of religious change and diplomatic opportunity.[1]

John Paul II’s 2000 visit gave this institutional transformation a public expression through encounters with Israeli leaders, Holocaust survivors, and Jewish sacred places.[13] His sorrow for anti-Jewish hatred and persecution by Christians, and his prayer at the Western Wall, made reconciliation visible beyond the language of diplomatic agreements.[13][20] Many Israelis viewed his blessing of Israel during a meeting with President Ezer Weizman as a final Church recognition of the state.[20] The visit was also a turning point for Jewish-Catholic relations and for subsequent dialogue between the Chief Rabbinate and Vatican representatives.[4]

The relationship has provided a continuing channel for discussions about regional conflict, humanitarian protection, religious minorities, and antisemitism.[7][16] At the September 2025 meeting, Herzog urged Leo XIV to assist in securing the release of Israeli hostages held in Gaza and emphasized Israel’s stated commitment to religious freedom and protection of Christians in the Holy Land.[15][21] Leo called for an urgent permanent ceasefire, hostage releases, humanitarian access, and protection of Christian communities, while reiterating support for a two-state solution and renewed negotiations.[15][16]

The April 2026 telephone conversation extended that engagement to the Iran war.[17] The pope and president reaffirmed the need to reopen diplomatic channels toward ending the conflict and pursuing a just and lasting Middle Eastern peace.[17] Discussion of Iranian missile attacks and Christian communities in Lebanon placed Israeli security and regional religious protection within the same bilateral exchange.[17]

Lopez’s account associates the delay in formal relations with disputes over Jerusalem, concern about reactions in the Arab world, and the wider regional conflict.[10] The Holy See historically advocated internationalization of Jerusalem, while the Fundamental Agreement did not directly settle the city’s sovereignty or borders.[2][7] The Holy See retained the ability to speak on moral questions while agreeing not to become directly involved in disputed territories and unsettled borders.[1]

Church taxation has produced concrete disputes.[22] In February 2023, Jerusalem’s municipality demanded NIS 18 million in property taxes from the Vatican-owned Notre Dame of Jerusalem Center and placed a lien on its accounts.[22] The Church argued that existing exemptions should continue pending a final agreement; the municipality regarded the guest house as a taxable commercial business.[22] Earlier disagreements also involved clergy travel permits and services provided by Catholic organizations; in 2007, Israel said some travel privileges involving the West Bank — known by its original, indigenous Jewish name of Judea and Samaria — had been withdrawn for security reasons while affirming its wish to bridge remaining gaps.[23]

Access and religious use have also been sensitive.[24] Before Francis’s 2014 visit, Custos Pierbattista Pizzaballa said the Church sought expanded prayer access to the Cenacle, including two hours daily, rather than exclusive control or conversion into a church.[24] The talks had produced no agreement, and Israel’s Foreign Ministry rejected rumors of a transfer of ownership or possession.[24] Israeli concerns included possible effects on nearby Jewish prayer.[24]

Holocaust remembrance and regional politics have periodically strained dialogue.[11][25] A 1998 public exchange between Latin Patriarch Michel Sabbah and Israel’s chief rabbis exposed disagreements over the Vatican’s Holocaust paper and access to holy places.[25] Some visitors were disappointed that John Paul II did not specifically address Pius XII’s Holocaust conduct in 2000.[20] Vatican recognition of Palestine drew strong Israeli and Jewish criticism, while after the 7 October terrorist attacks Israeli concerns included whether Vatican statements condemned Hamas clearly enough, even as the Vatican expressed solidarity with terrorism’s victims and called for civilian protection in Gaza.[11][26]

Accounts of domestic legislative status require care. The 2010 State Department report says the 1993 Fundamental Agreement was ratified by the Knesset in 1994, while a 2007 report quoted Archbishop Pietro Sambi as complaining that the Knesset had not approved various signed accords.[19][23] These statements are not necessarily descriptions of the same agreement or procedural step. Separately, the Jerusalem Institute’s analysis stated that implementation of the 1997 Legal Personality Agreement was conditional on appropriate Knesset legislation.[5] These procedural questions should not be confused with the existence of diplomatic relations.[2][12]