Twelve-Day War

By the spring of 2025, Iran stood on the threshold of nuclear-weapons capability. The Institute for National Security Studies assessed that Iran could potentially have enriched its existing uranium stockpile to weapons-grade 90 percent purity in less than two weeks after a political decision to do so.[2] An Israeli government report stated that Iran had been enriching uranium to 60 percent purity since 2021 — far above plausible civilian-use levels and technically close to the approximately 90 percent threshold for weapons-grade material.[3] Iran's enriched-uranium stockpile had also risen sharply in the period immediately preceding the conflict.[8]

The International Atomic Energy Agency issued a series of escalating warnings in the days before the fighting began. On June 9, 2025, the IAEA raised proliferation concerns, and on June 12 its Board of Governors formally found Iran in non-compliance with its safeguards obligations, stating that the agency could not verify that safeguarded nuclear material had not been diverted.[3] Israel's Ministry of Foreign Affairs cited that finding while presenting its official legal justification for the strikes, and the Lawfare Project separately argued that the operation constituted anticipatory self-defense against an imminent threat.[3][8]

Diplomacy was simultaneously underway but faltering. The United States and Iran had held five rounds of indirect negotiations in April and May 2025, with a sixth round scheduled for June 15. Israel launched its military operation on June 13 — two days before that scheduled meeting — preventing the diplomatic track from proceeding.[5] The United States initially stated that it was not involved in Israel's opening attack and was prioritizing the safety of American personnel in the region.[5]

Israel's campaign began in the early hours of June 13, 2025. The first wave, internally designated Red Wedding, commenced at approximately 3 a.m., when more than 200 Israeli aircraft dropped over 330 munitions against approximately 100 targets across Iran.[1] Simultaneously, Israeli unmanned aerial vehicles conducted more than 500 attacks and preemptive strikes against missile launchers and critical infrastructure, designed to establish air superiority and disrupt Iran's nuclear and missile capabilities from the opening moments of the conflict.[1]

The operation's formal objectives, as stated by the Israeli Ministry of Foreign Affairs, were to neutralize what Israel characterized as an imminent and existential threat from Iran's nuclear-weapons program, to counter Iran's ballistic-missile program and other military activities, to weaken Iran's regional armed-group network, and to degrade Iranian air defenses.[3] Targets selected by Israeli intelligence included uranium-enrichment facilities, centrifuge-related infrastructure, nuclear research and development sites, missile launchers and depots, missile and drone factories, air-defense systems, military bases, command centers, and senior members of Iran's armed forces and nuclear program.[3]

The Jerusalem Center for Foreign and Defense Affairs reported that, during the conflict's first 72 hours, Israel launched more than 300 guided munitions in five synchronized waves against Iranian nuclear facilities, air bases, missile launchers, drone hubs, leadership compounds, airfields, storage depots, radar installations, missile-development infrastructure, and centrifuge-production lines.[9] Israeli satellites produced more than 12,000 high-resolution images of Iran during the conflict, supporting dozens of urgent operational adjustments and the identification of hundreds of targets per day.[1] Mossad operatives were also reported to have been involved in ground-based sabotage of Iranian air defenses in support of the air campaign.[10]

By the end of the twelve days, the Israeli military stated it had achieved aerial superiority over western Iran and Tehran, destroyed more than 80 Iranian air-defense batteries, conducted over 1,000 sorties and more than 600 aerial-refueling operations, and dropped thousands of munitions on hundreds of targets.[7] Israeli military estimates held that approximately two-thirds of Iran's ballistic-missile launchers — roughly 250 launchers — and approximately 1,000 ballistic missiles had been destroyed, leaving Iran with an estimated 1,000 to 1,500 missiles and roughly 100 operational launchers.[7] IDF Chief of Staff Lt. Gen. Eyal Zamir stated: "we have set Iran's nuclear project back by years."[7]

The destruction or degradation of Iran's nuclear infrastructure was the central strategic objective of Operation Rising Lion. Israel said its strikes caused significant damage to Iran's Natanz and Isfahan nuclear facilities and also targeted the inactive Arak heavy-water reactor, the headquarters of the SPND nuclear project, a site holding Iran's nuclear archive, and centrifuge-production facilities.[7] The Jerusalem Center for Foreign and Defense Affairs reported that the above-ground pilot enrichment plant at Natanz was destroyed and that Isfahan's nuclear research infrastructure was struck.[9]

On June 22, the United States entered the conflict directly with Operation Midnight Hammer. American B-2 bombers used GBU-57 Massive Ordnance Penetrator bombs against Iran's three principal nuclear sites at Fordow, Natanz, and Isfahan in what the American Jewish Committee described as the largest B-2 bomber mission in U.S. history.[10] Naval cruise missiles were also used in the attack.[4] The Jerusalem Center reported that the deeply buried Fordow facility, considered beyond the reach of Israeli munitions, appeared to have sustained severe damage following the American strikes.[9] Iranian Foreign Minister Abbas Araghchi also acknowledged that the strikes on Fordow had caused severe damage.[11]

The Pentagon stated that Iran's atomic program had been set back by up to two years.[11] The Center for Israel Education noted that this marked the first time the U.S. military had directly intervened offensively in an Israeli war.[4] The exact scope and durability of the damage remained uncertain. Initial U.S. statements said the targets suffered severe damage or that Iran's nuclear ambitions had been "obliterated," while acknowledging that the full assessment was ongoing.[10] The Jerusalem Center likewise noted that independent verification of damage at Fordow, Natanz, and Isfahan remained pending and that the status of Iran's enriched-uranium stockpiles was unclear.[9]

Israel's opening strikes on June 13 reportedly killed approximately 30 senior Iranian military commanders.[7] Among those killed, based on IDF assessments, were Armed Forces Chief of Staff Mohammad Bagheri, IRGC commander-in-chief Hossein Salami, Khatam-al-Anbiya Central Headquarters chief Gholam Ali Rashid, IRGC Aerospace Force commander Amir Ali Hajizadeh, and IRGC intelligence chief Mohammad Kazemi.[7][9] Nuclear scientists and senior Quds Force personnel were also among the reported targets.

The Jerusalem Center for Foreign and Defense Affairs reported that at least 14 nuclear scientists were killed, including former Atomic Energy Organization head Fereydoun Abbasi-Davani and physicist Mohammad Mehdi Tehranchi.[9] The figures and attributions for these strikes were based on IDF assessments and, as with other military claims from the conflict, had not been independently verified at the time of reporting.[7]

Iran's response was large in scale but significantly degraded by Israeli and allied air defenses. During the twelve-day operation, Iran fired more than 550 ballistic missiles and more than 1,000 armed drones toward Israel.[3] Around 90 percent of the ballistic missiles were intercepted, while more than 99 percent of threatening Iranian UAVs were neutralized.[7] Israel's integrated air-defense system operated with support from the United States and Jordan.[9]

Despite the high interception rates, at least 31 missile impacts occurred in populated areas or at critical infrastructure.[7] More than 150 Iranian missiles were launched on June 14, more than 110 on June 15, and 43 on June 16.[12] On June 15, a strike on an apartment building in Bat Yam killed nine people and wounded approximately 200.[12] The following day, attacks on sites in the Haifa and Tel Aviv areas killed 11 people.[12]

Among the most damaging strikes were a missile that hit an apartment building in Bat Yam, killing nine people; a strike in Tamra that killed four women from one family; a strike in Be'er Sheva that killed four people; and a direct hit on Soroka Hospital that destroyed one building, damaged others, injured more than 80 people, and required hundreds of patients to be transferred.[3] Iranian attacks also struck the Weizmann Institute of Science, destroying approximately 45 laboratories.[3] An oil refinery in Haifa, a power station in southern Israel, and a university in central Israel were among the critical infrastructure hit.[7]

The IDF Home Front Command issued more than 21,000 alerts to Israeli civilians during the conflict.[1] Entire residential buildings were destroyed or evacuated, schools and workplaces were closed, public gatherings were suspended, and Israel's civilian airspace was restricted throughout the hostilities.[3] More than 9,000 people were reported displaced, and a separate estimate put the figure above 13,000.[7][6]

The Houthis, the only Iranian proxy identified as openly attacking Israel during the conflict, launched two confirmed missile attacks. A missile fired on June 13 fell near Hebron and injured five Palestinians, including three children; a second missile fired on June 16 fell outside Israeli territory. Houthi spokesman Yahya Saree stated that the attacks were coordinated with Iranian military and Revolutionary Guard operations.[13]

The United States moved from a posture of non-involvement to direct military engagement on June 22, 2025, nine days into the conflict. Operation Midnight Hammer involved more than 125 aircraft, including B-2 bombers carrying GBU-57 Massive Ordnance Penetrator bombs.[10] The Jerusalem Center reported that the munitions were used because Israeli weapons were considered unable to reach deeply buried sites such as Fordow; naval cruise missiles also formed part of the attack.[9][4] U.S. officials described the operation as narrowly tailored to destroy or severely degrade Iran's nuclear program and explicitly not aimed at regime change.[5]

Iran responded by launching a retaliatory missile attack against Al Udeid Air Base in Qatar, where U.S. personnel were stationed, on June 23. No casualties were reported from that strike.[5] Iran also fired 14 missiles at American bases during the conflict overall, all of which were intercepted, with no American fatalities or aircraft losses.[9]

Hours after the Iranian strike on Al Udeid, President Donald Trump announced that Israel and Iran would cease hostilities on June 24, bringing the fighting to a close.[5] The Israeli Ministry of Foreign Affairs stated that Israel accepted the U.S. proposal for a mutual ceasefire after concluding that its stated objectives had been achieved and that the imminent nuclear threat had been neutralized "for the time being."[3] No formal armistice or peace treaty accompanied the cessation of hostilities.[4]

The ceasefire was fragile in its opening hours. On June 24, eight Iranian attacks — one drone attack and seven missile attacks — were recorded, concentrated before the ceasefire took effect at 7:00 a.m.; two additional attacks were reported after the truce.[14] One of the final strikes hit a residential building in Beersheba, killing four people and wounding 26.[14]

Sources differed on the Israeli death toll. Jewish Policy Research reported 28 people killed in Israel, including 27 civilians.[6] An Israeli Ministry of Foreign Affairs report instead counted 28 civilian deaths plus one off-duty soldier, for a total of 29.[3] A separate running tally recorded 28 deaths and 3,431 injuries from Iranian missile and drone fire.[14] Israel's Health Ministry reported 3,238 hospitalizations, including serious, moderate, and light injuries as well as acute-anxiety cases.[7]

Seven soldiers were injured in a single missile impact in central Israel, and an off-duty soldier was killed in Beersheba.[7] Soroka Hospital was struck directly, injuring more than 80 people and requiring the transfer of hundreds of patients; the Weizmann Institute of Science, one of Israel's foremost research institutions, suffered the destruction of approximately 45 laboratories.[3] Schools, workplaces, public gatherings, and Israel's civilian airspace were all closed or restricted for the duration of the twelve days.[3]

Displacement and injury figures also varied by source and reporting date. Jewish Policy Research reported more than 3,000 injured and more than 13,000 displaced following missile damage to homes.[6] The Israeli government document reported more than 3,300 injured and described thousands of people as displaced.[3]

The Twelve-Day War left both countries substantially altered in terms of their military balance. The Institute for National Security Studies assessed that the war damaged Iran's nuclear program and long-range-missile arsenal, exposed significant gaps in Iran's deterrence and defense capabilities, and prompted Iranian efforts to rebuild both its missile forces and air-defense networks.[2] The conflict also demonstrated limits in Iran's proxy-based "forward defense" doctrine: Israel and the United States were able to strike Iran directly, absorbing retaliation, despite Iran's extensive regional network of armed groups.[2]

Israeli public opinion strongly supported the decision to go to war. Israel Democracy Institute data showed that 70 percent of all Israelis and 82 percent of Israeli Jews backed the decision to attack Iran.[6] The same report noted little change in trust in Prime Minister Benjamin Netanyahu and stated that Netanyahu appeared to have accomplished his key objectives, although it did not specify those objectives.[6]

Iran's official narrative was starkly different. President Masoud Pezeshkian called the outcome a "historic victory" and claimed Israel had failed to achieve its objectives.[15] Iranian officials described the cessation of fighting as a victory and pledged not to violate the ceasefire unless Israel did so.[15] The Iranian Revolutionary Guards characterized the U.S. military strikes as a "blatant and unprecedented crime" violating the UN Charter, international law, the Nuclear Non-Proliferation Treaty, and state sovereignty.[15]

The Jerusalem Center for Foreign and Defense Affairs assessed that the conflict ended with the ceasefire preserving Israeli gains and avoiding broader regional escalation, arguing that Iran's nuclear timeline was pushed back by years, its missile arsenal was reduced by approximately half, and its air-defense network and proxy strategy were severely weakened.[9] These analytical judgments, like many assessments of the war's strategic outcome, remained contested after the ceasefire.[2]

The conflict is also called the "Am Kalavi War" or "Rising Lion War" in some Israeli academic and security writing.[2] The Institute for National Security Studies characterized it as the most traumatic event for Iran since the Iran–Iraq War ended in 1988 and as the sharpest escalation to date in the decades-long Israel–Iran confrontation.[2] The Anti-Defamation League identified it as an unprecedented direct military confrontation between Israel and Iran.[16]

Israeli reporting and the Jerusalem Center emphasized what they described as a pronounced Israeli technological and operational advantage. More than 200 aircraft, thousands of munitions, more than 1,000 sorties, over 600 aerial-refueling operations, and the production of more than 12,000 satellite reconnaissance images during twelve days of sustained combat illustrated the scale of Israeli military activity.[1][7] Iran's response, while massive in volume, was largely neutralized by layered air defenses — a result that underlined the growing importance of integrated missile defense in modern warfare.

The Center for Israel Education described the intervention as the first direct offensive participation of U.S. forces in an Israeli war.[4] Operation Midnight Hammer, involving what the American Jewish Committee called the largest B-2 bomber mission in U.S. history, demonstrated U.S. willingness to employ strategic air assets in support of the operation's objectives.[10] The U.S. decision to strike Fordow — a facility considered beyond the reach of Israeli weapons — and AJC's report that the operation was coordinated with the IDF also underscored the degree of operational coordination between the two militaries.[9][10]

Israel formally notified the United Nations of its military operation in a letter dated June 17, 2025, recorded as Security Council document S/2025/390, in which it identified the operation as directed against Iran's nuclear-weapon and ballistic-missile programs.[17] The Lawfare Project argued that the IAEA's June 12 non-compliance finding supported Israel's case for anticipatory self-defense; this was an advocacy position rather than an independent legal ruling.[8]

For Israel, the war's immediate domestic consequence was a period of intense national stress followed by recognition in Israeli analysis that its military had continued operating effectively under sustained bombardment. The conflict closed schools and civilian airspace and displaced more than 13,000 people according to Jewish Policy Research.[6] The Jerusalem Center reported that Iran did not destroy an Israeli airfield, bring down an Israeli aircraft, or disable IDF operations.[9] Jewish Policy Research also noted that the Tzofar-Red Alert application, which had sent warnings throughout the conflict, "quietened down a little" after the fighting ended — a phrase capturing the abrupt shift from constant alerts to an uncertain ceasefire.[6]

Several dimensions of the Twelve-Day War remained contested after the guns fell silent. The extent and permanence of damage to Iran's nuclear facilities — particularly Fordow, Natanz, and Isfahan — were not independently verified in the conflict's immediate aftermath. Initial U.S. claims described severe or potentially decisive damage, while complete assessments remained ongoing.[10] Independent verification of the destruction at the three sites remained pending, and the status of Iran's enriched-uranium stockpiles was unclear.[9]

Casualty figures also varied across sources. Jewish Policy Research reported 28 Israeli deaths, including 27 civilians, while the Israeli Ministry of Foreign Affairs counted 28 civilians and one off-duty soldier, for a total of 29.[6][3] Reported injury totals ranged from 3,238 hospitalizations to 3,431 injuries depending on the source and date of counting.[7][14] IDF estimates of destroyed Iranian launchers, missiles, air-defense batteries, and killed commanders were based on internal assessments and had not been independently corroborated as of the available reporting.

The Israeli Ministry of Foreign Affairs and the Institute for National Security Studies both date the operation's end to June 24.[3][2] The agreement was nevertheless fragile: attacks were reported around the truce's implementation, including two after the stated ceasefire time.[14]

The conflict's name and interpretation remained politically charged. Several Israeli and U.S.-based sources use "Twelve-Day War," while INSS notes that Iran called it the "Imposed War."[4][2] President Masoud Pezeshkian claimed a "historic victory," while the Jerusalem Center assessed that Israel and the United States achieved overwhelming success.[15][9] Claims about nuclear setbacks, missile attrition, and proxy-network degradation therefore remained attributed analytical judgments rather than uncontested measurements.