Operation Tzur Israel

Operation Tzur Israel formed part of the longer history of Ethiopian aliyah, which included Operation Moses in the mid-1980s and Operation Solomon in 1991. In 2015, the Israeli government announced its intention to bring as many as 9,000 additional Ethiopians to Israel by 2020. In October 2020, it approved the immediate immigration of 2,000 people described by the Jewish Agency as blood descendants of Jews, with family reunification as the principal aim.[2][3]

The terminology and eligibility rules surrounding the applicants were complex. The Jewish Agency used the term Zera Israel for blood descendants of Jews who were not considered Jewish under religious law. Other sources discussed Falash Mura, a community whose ancestors had converted to Christianity under pressure.[2][6] The Jerusalem Post reported that many recent arrivals were relatives of Israeli citizens who were not recognized as Jewish under Jewish law, while advocates maintained that they descended from Jews subjected to forced conversion. These questions also became the subject of legal challenges to the operation.[1][7]

The first phase was intended mainly for people in Gondar and Addis Ababa who had first-degree relatives in Israel. Despite the 2015 commitment, a November 2020 report estimated that approximately 7,000 people would remain in Ethiopia after the planned arrival of the initial 2,000.[3]

The first phase was authorized under Government Decision 429 and aimed to bring approximately 2,000 immigrants to Israel.[8] Preparations began in November 2020, when Jewish Agency Chairman Isaac Herzog, Minister of Aliyah and Integration Pnina Tamano-Shata, and a Jewish Agency delegation traveled to Ethiopia.[5] The Jewish Agency organized the flights and pre-aliyah work in coordination with the Ministries of Aliyah and Integration, Interior, and Foreign Affairs. North American Jewish federations, Keren Hayesod, the International Fellowship of Christians and Jews, and other donors supported the effort.[5]

On December 3, 2020, 316 immigrants landed at Ben Gurion Airport, with another 100 scheduled to arrive the following day.[9] At the reception, a mother kissed the ground while carrying two babies named Jerusalem and Esther.[9] The mission had personal significance for Tamano-Shata, who had left Ethiopia at age three during Operation Moses and returned as a government minister.[5]

The first phase used nine flights. Its arrivals included approximately 893 children, among them about 150 expected to enter first grade the following school year; roughly 250 people aged 18 to 24 were expected to enlist in the Israel Defense Forces. The group also included about 70 infants younger than one and 35 people older than 70, and immigrants were placed in absorption centers from Safed to Beersheba.[8]

The ninth and final flight landed on March 11, 2021, carrying nearly 300 immigrants and completing a phase reported at the time as bringing approximately 2,000 people.[10][8] Before departure, the Jewish Agency provided nutrition, preparation courses, and travel assistance in Gondar and Addis Ababa. After quarantine in Israel, immigrants received Hebrew instruction, vocational support, educational assistance, and social programs in absorption centers.[2][10]

After March 2021, the operation was frozen for approximately a year. Contemporary reporting attributed the delay to the Ethiopian civil war and to a Supreme Court petition challenging the admission of some candidates on the grounds that they lacked a qualifying Jewish connection.[11][7]

On November 28, 2021, the government adopted Resolution 713, promoted by Tamano-Shata and Interior Minister Ayelet Shaked. It authorized the immigration of 3,000 people in Ethiopia who had first-degree relatives in Israel and provided a budget of approximately 570 million shekels.[11]

The Supreme Court issued an interim order that temporarily halted implementation. The petitioners later withdrew their case following comments from the judges, and the court canceled the order, permitting the resolution to proceed.[7] A January 2023 Knesset briefing reported that 3,094 immigrants had been approved under the 2021–2022 implementation, 1,494 had arrived, and 1,619 were still waiting at that point.[12]

A preparatory delegation traveled to Ethiopia in late May 2022. It was led by Acting Jewish Agency Chairman Yaakov Hagoel and Tamano-Shata and included representatives of the Jewish Federations of North America, Keren Hayesod, and the World Zionist Organization.[13]

The first flight of the renewed operation landed on June 1, 2022, with approximately 180 immigrants. A second flight arrived the following day with another 160, bringing the opening total to 340.[13][14] The Jewish Agency maintained 20 staff members in Ethiopia to prepare families and organize flights in coordination with the Ministries of Aliyah and Integration, Interior, and Foreign Affairs.[14]

The second phase ultimately brought approximately 3,000 immigrants. Seventy percent were reported to be younger than 35, and half were children and teenagers. The Jewish Agency and its partners coordinated 18 special flights, while five additional absorption centers were opened, bringing the reported nationwide total of operational centers to 25.[1]

The final flight landed on July 12, 2023, carrying 130 immigrants. Its arrival completed the second phase and brought the reported total for both phases to approximately 5,000—about 2,000 during the first phase and 3,000 during the second.[1][4]

The immigrants were initially housed in absorption centers operated by the Ministry of Aliyah and Integration and the Jewish Agency. Reporting at the conclusion of the operation said that the arrivals were being accommodated in 18 centers; five new centers had been opened, while 25 centers were operational nationwide.[1][4]

A report from the opening of the second phase said immigrants were expected to remain in absorption centers for two to three years. During that period, they received financial assistance, Hebrew-language instruction, and help entering employment and the education system; the report also said they would undergo a conversion process.[14] Before departure, the Jewish Agency provided nutrition and preparation courses in Gondar and Addis Ababa and paid travel costs.[2]

Absorption-center figures varied according to date and scope. A January 2023 Knesset briefing reported approximately 5,600 immigrants housed in centers and 15 centers operating under Resolution 713.[12] By July 2023, reports referred to 18 centers receiving the operation's immigrants and 25 operational centers across Israel.[1][4]

The operation ended without resolving all pending cases. In July 2023, Ynet reported that 4,226 requests from Ethiopian citizens had not been examined, that the current state budget lacked funding for further flights from the waiting communities, and that the interministerial team required under Resolution 713 had not been established. The same report cited an estimate of approximately 9,000 people still waiting in Ethiopia.[4]

Accounts of Operation Tzur Israel used differing descriptions for its participants, including Ethiopian Jews, members of the Ethiopian community, blood descendants of Jews, and relatives of Israeli citizens.[2][1] These terms reflected substantive disagreements over religious recognition and legal eligibility. Advocates emphasized descent from Jews whose ancestors had converted under pressure, while petitioners challenging the second phase argued that some applicants were not entitled to status under the Law of Return.[6][7]

Published totals also require attention to their date and scope. The Jewish Agency's retrospective history states that the first phase facilitated the immigration of 2,150 people, whereas its final-flight announcement and contemporary Ynet report describe a total of approximately 2,000.[2][10] The sources do not explain the difference. The retrospective page also lists selected groups—70 babies, 219 children, 674 young adults, and 35 older adults—but does not identify those categories as an exhaustive demographic breakdown, so their subtotal should not be treated as an alternative overall count.[2]

Estimates of the population remaining in Ethiopia likewise changed between reports. A March 2022 account referred to approximately 10,000 people in the waiting communities, while a July 2023 report cited an estimate of approximately 9,000.[7][4] Differences among those estimates, the Knesset's interim implementation figures, and the final reported total of 5,000 reflect reporting at different stages and the use of different categories, including approved immigrants, pending applicants, and the broader waiting population.