Israeli Elite Forces

Sayeret Matkal, Shayetet 13, and Shaldag represent three central branches of Israeli military special operations: General Staff reconnaissance associated with Military Intelligence, naval commando warfare, and air-force commando operations.[3] These formations have traditionally answered to their respective branch headquarters rather than to operational brigades.[3] Their assignments combine specialized combat capabilities with intelligence, long-range movement, and preparation for missions that differ from ordinary infantry operations.[3]

The military definition of a special unit emphasizes varied combat training, high basic combat proficiency, and organization in small units for special operations.[3] This definition does not make every highly selected formation a special unit, although the boundaries between special units, reconnaissance formations, and other elite troops have sometimes blurred.[3] Unit 669, for example, is commonly grouped with leading elite formations but specializes in rescue and extraction rather than the raiding role associated with the principal combat commando units.[4]

The broader category also encompasses reconnaissance companies belonging to infantry brigades, specialized engineering capabilities, and formations organized for particular environments or operational methods.[2][7] The Golani, Paratroopers, and Givati brigades have fielded reconnaissance companies that conduct special operations, while smaller specialist units contribute capabilities outside the missions of the principal commandos.[2] Yahalom provides combat-engineering expertise, and Duvdevan specializes in urban counterterrorism and undercover activity.[7]

Elite status therefore describes several different kinds of military capability rather than one uniform organizational structure.[3][4] Alongside these military formations, Yamam belongs to the Border Guard, the combat branch of the Israel Police, and carries out police counterterrorism and hostage-rescue duties.[6] Its institutional separation from the IDF is important when considering the wider Israeli system of specialized security forces.[6]

The Palmach was established on May 15, 1941, as the Haganah’s elite strike force within the organized Jewish community, or Yishuv.[5] Its name derived from the Hebrew Plugot Mahatz, meaning “strike force,” and its initial purpose was to protect Jews against a possible Axis attack or an Arab attack following a British withdrawal.[5] Under Yitzhak Sadeh’s command, its six units included three ground formations and aerial, naval, and intelligence elements.[5] Its members trained while stationed in kibbutzim and supported themselves by working there for two weeks each month.[5]

Yitzhak Sadeh and Yigal Allon founded the Palmach, whose personnel trained in commando tactics and later fought on several fronts during the War of Independence.[8] Its early experience also included specialized language and undercover capabilities: Palmach formations included Arabic-speaking soldiers and, in British service, German-speaking soldiers intended for operations behind enemy lines.[2] These pre-state activities preceded the establishment of the later IDF special-operations system.[9]

Between the end of the Second World War and 1947, the Palmach brought tens of thousands of Jewish refugees and Holocaust survivors from Europe to Palestine in 65 shiploads that were illegal under British Mandatory restrictions.[5] It also attacked Mandatory installations and infrastructure, including police stations, railways, radar facilities, naval vessels, and bridges.[5] These activities connected its military role with Jewish refugee immigration and resistance to British Mandatory rule.[5]

During the War of Independence, the Palmach retained organizational autonomy inside the IDF, including its own command structure and training arrangements.[5] Prime Minister David Ben-Gurion sought to depoliticize the armed forces and combine the former underground organizations into a single military institution.[5] On September 14, 1948, he announced the end of the Palmach’s independence; the same integration policy applied to Etzel, also known as Irgun, and Lehi.[5] The Palmach was formally dissolved as a separate military structure on October 7, 1948, and incorporated into the IDF.[8]

Other specialized formations emerged during the state’s first years.[9] In 1948, the Golani Brigade formed a Special Reconnaissance Platoon for long-range reconnaissance, pathfinding, demolition, and intelligence gathering; it subsequently developed into Sayeret Golani.[9] The airborne T’zanhanim, or Paratroopers, unit was formed in June 1948 as elite infantry for demanding missions.[9] Unit 30 followed in 1951, conducting retaliation missions in small teams before being disbanded in 1952 after poor performance.[9]

Unit 101 was established in August 1953 after regular-infantry retaliatory operations had repeatedly gone badly.[2] Its task was to conduct reprisal raids against Arab states harboring Palestinian infiltrators and guerrillas.[2] Its operational method involved entering enemy territory, completing an assigned task, and returning to IDF bases.[3] Commanded by Ariel Sharon, the unit introduced small-unit maneuvers and insertion methods that continued to influence Israeli infantry.[9]

Although Unit 101 operated for only a few months, it conducted several dozen missions before merging with the newly formed 890th Paratroop Battalion in January 1954.[2] Its informal atmosphere, esprit de corps, and “follow me” standard of combat leadership influenced wider IDF norms.[2] Its establishment marked a watershed in the army’s operational concept, although a naval commando formation already existed, drawing personnel from the Palyam and the Palmach’s Shahar division.[3]

The Paratroopers acquired a reputation for daring missions and considerable combat experience during the IDF’s early years.[10] On October 29, 1956, 395 paratroopers jumped from 16 Dakota aircraft in the first operational parachute jump in IDF history.[10] The brigade conducted two operational parachute-jump missions, both during the 1950s Sinai Campaign, and retained a longstanding public reputation as an elite fighting formation.[10]

Additional reconnaissance units developed in the late 1950s: Sayeret Egoz in Northern Command, Sayeret Haruv in Central Command, and Sayeret Shaked in Southern Command.[2] Their assignments involved border security and cross-border action against infiltrators, including operations in Gaza, the Arava, and the West Bank — known by its original, indigenous Jewish name of Judea and Samaria.[2] Egoz and Haruv were disbanded after the 1973 war as the IDF reconsidered the resources devoted to specialized counter-insurgency units rather than regular infantry.[2] Egoz was re-established in 1995 in response to Hezbollah guerrillas in Lebanon.[2]

Sayeret Matkal was founded in 1957 by Avraham Arnan to conduct highly secret intelligence-gathering missions in enemy territory.[7][11] Associated with Military Intelligence and modeled on the British Special Air Service, it was intended to serve the General Staff on sensitive missions, often deep beyond Israel’s borders.[9][7] Its initial personnel included former Palmach undercover fighters, Military Intelligence veterans, veterans of Unit 101 and the Paratroopers, and young kibbutz members.[7] Its existence was not officially acknowledged until the late 1980s, and much of its work and capabilities remained secret.[7]

Before the 1970s, formations including Sayeret Matkal concentrated largely on long-range reconnaissance, intelligence gathering, and open-field combat, with limited counterterrorism capability and no hostage-rescue training.[9] The subsequent development of hostage-rescue and counterterrorism capabilities became a distinct phase in Israeli special-forces history from 1974 onward.[9] Sayeret Matkal’s offensive role expanded after the Green Island raid during the War of Attrition.[7]

The development of specialized units also reflected requirements for air support, rescue, and undercover operations.[7][12] Shaldag was founded in 1974 by Sayeret Matkal veteran Muki Betzer, initially as a reserve company of that unit before transferring to the Air Force.[12] Unit 669 emerged from the post-Yom Kippur War requirement for a central Air Force rescue organization able to develop doctrine and maintain continuous availability.[7] It became operational in December 1974 with about a dozen fighters; doctors and medics joined in 1978, and missing-person searches were added to its responsibilities in 2004.[7]

Duvdevan was established in 1986 to meet the need for undercover and targeted operations, particularly in the West Bank, with early teams drawn from Shayetet 13 and the Paratroopers reconnaissance unit.[7] After the intifada began, the IDF expanded its mista’arvim framework in December 1988; Samson, or Shimshon, operated in Gaza and Duvdevan in the West Bank.[2] These forces worked closely with Israeli intelligence services and operated disguised as local residents.[2] Restrictions on the IDF’s presence in Palestinian city centers after Oslo increased the perceived need for forces capable of entering those areas covertly.[7]

The principal special units are equipped for long-range movement, sustained operations in the field, and access to intelligence intended to support precision.[3] Their traditional division of labor assigned attacks on harbors and ports to naval commandos, assistance to air-force missions to Shaldag, and intelligence operations deep in enemy territory to the General Staff reconnaissance unit.[3] Over time, their responsibilities expanded toward complex operations within territorial commands and beyond, together with readiness for terrorist attacks and hostage situations.[3]

Sayeret Matkal, also known as General Staff Reconnaissance Unit 269 or simply “the Unit,” combines intelligence gathering, reconnaissance, counterterrorism, and complex hostage rescue.[7][11] Its operations have included the 1972 storming of a hijacked Sabena aircraft at Tel Aviv Airport, known as Operation Isotope, and participation with other IDF formations in the 1976 Entebbe rescue.[11] The latter operation rescued more than 100 Air France passengers held after a hijacking.[11] The Savoy Hotel hostage operation also appears among the unit’s recorded missions.[7]

Entebbe demonstrated the participation of multiple military specialties in a mission associated publicly with an elite commando unit.[13] The task force included Sayeret Matkal, Air Force pilots, Paratroopers, Golani infantrymen, Medical Corps personnel, and a fueling team.[13] Thirty-three commandos formed the terminal-assault force under Lieutenant Colonel Yonatan “Yoni” Netanyahu, with separate teams assigned to the hostage area, customs facilities and Ugandan soldiers’ quarters, other terminal areas, vehicles, and covering fire.[13] The aircraft was hijacked on June 27, 1976; after diplomatic efforts failed, Israel launched the rescue. Netanyahu was killed, and the mission became known as Operation Jonathan.[14]

Sayeret Matkal has also conducted attacks against senior Palestinian organizational leaders.[2] In April 1973, its commandos killed several leaders of the Black September terrorist organization in West Beirut.[11] The unit was also responsible for an attack on senior PLO leaders in Tunis in April 1988.[2] During the Second Lebanon War in 2006, it operated in Lebanon’s Beqaa Valley in an effort to disrupt arms smuggling to Hezbollah.[15]

Shayetet 13, also called Flotilla 13 or the naval commando, originated in the Palyam tradition and was formed with personnel from the Haganah’s naval branch under Yohai Ben-Nun.[16] Its specialties include sea-to-land incursions, sabotage, maritime intelligence, boarding, counterterrorism, and maritime hostage rescue.[16] Its commandos train for operations at sea, on land, and in the air.[4] The unit’s existence became public in 1960, while many mission details and the identities of serving personnel remained classified.[16] Its maritime interceptions included the 2002 seizure of the Karine A, carrying 50 tons of weapons.[4]

Shaldag, also known as Unit 5101 and the Special Surface-Air Designation Team, provides commando capabilities tailored to Air Force requirements.[12] Its missions include special reconnaissance, establishing assault zones or airfields, air-traffic control, and commando actions.[12] Intelligence gathering behind enemy lines and operations relevant to air-force missions remain central to its role, while operational details are confidential.[17]

Unit 669 specializes in airborne combat search and rescue and evacuation.[7] Its tasks include recovering aircrew who eject over enemy territory, extracting troops under fire, evacuating battlefield casualties, and transferring injured people by helicopter.[7] It also rescues injured hikers and maritime crews and searches for missing people, maintaining operational, technical, and medical readiness for these varied tasks.[7] Training includes combat medicine, parachuting, scuba diving, counterterrorism, rappelling, navigation, and rescue under harsh conditions.[17]

Duvdevan conducts high-risk urban counterterrorism operations, including arrests, ambushes, weapons seizures, intelligence gathering, and the capture of wanted people.[7][18] Much of its work involves blending into local populations before identifying its members as Israeli soldiers when necessary.[7] Such missions can involve close-range exchanges of fire and efforts to avoid harming bystanders.[7] Maglan, another commando formation, specializes in reconnaissance and operations far behind enemy lines, while Rimon developed expertise in desert environments after its establishment in 2010.[18]

Yahalom, whose name means “diamond,” is an elite unit of the Combat Engineering Corps.[7] It supplies expertise in precision demolition, infrastructure sabotage, explosives handling, bomb disposal, land and sea breaching, and minefield clearance.[7] Its work also includes locating and destroying weapons caches, underground passages, and tunnels, and handling trapped buildings and complex explosive scenes.[7] Robots, specialized cameras, and protective clothing are among the tools used for these assignments.[7]

Special units have operated through three broad command arrangements: branch or corps headquarters for complex operations, General Staff direction for special missions, and temporary assignment to territorial commands for routine operational requirements.[3] The Karine A takeover and the Baalbek operation “Sharp and Smooth” during the Second Lebanon War illustrate branch-level and General Staff-directed employment.[3] Temporary assignments have included operations near the northern border and targeted activity in the West Bank and Gaza.[3]

Later organizational reforms sought to improve cooperation without erasing the specialist functions of individual units.[18][19] In December 2015, the IDF formed the Oz Commando Brigade under Central Command’s 98th Division, bringing together Egoz, Maglan, Duvdevan, and Rimon.[18] Before the reorganization, Maglan and Duvdevan were affiliated with the Paratroopers, Egoz with Golani, and Rimon with Givati.[19] The units were expected to retain independent functions rather than become a single fighting unit, while improving coordination and emergency effectiveness.[19] A subsequent commando school supplemented basic and advanced training that continued within their regular infantry brigades.[18]

In 2011, plans for a Depth Corps coordinating structure involved Sayeret Matkal, Shayetet 13, Shaldag, and Unit 669.[20] The structure was described as a headquarters of about 100 soldiers and officers for complex long-range counterterrorism, anti-smuggling, and anti-proliferation missions, with component forces assembled for individual assignments rather than permanently transferred.[20] Missions were to be assessed individually, and the command was not intended to assume responsibility for every operation at long range.[20]

The Air Force established its 7th Wing for Special Forces in 2020, grouping Unit 669, Shaldag, the Frontal Landing Unit, and a dedicated intelligence unit.[17] A wing school for elite forces opened in 2022 to improve training while preserving the characteristics of each unit.[17] The wing was intended to improve operational effectiveness, while the Frontal Landing Unit prepares improvised airfields for transport aircraft.[17]

Yamam’s police responsibilities include civilian hostage rescue, counterterrorism, SWAT missions, undercover policing, and VIP security.[6] It trains its own operators in disciplines including sharpshooting, reconnaissance, dog handling, and bomb disposal.[6] In 2021, Prime Minister Naftali Bennett designated Yamam Israel’s national counterterrorism unit, formally assigning responsibility for counterterrorism operations including hostage situations and dangerous arrest raids.[21] The announcement included a NIS 10 million allocation for 2022 to expand personnel and improve equipment and training facilities.[21]

Unit 101’s influence extended beyond its small size and brief existence through the combat norms, training methods, and leadership expectations it helped establish.[2][3] Its emphasis on initiative, unit cohesion, and commanders leading from the front became part of the wider IDF’s military culture.[2] The continuing association of elite service with the Paratroopers likewise reflected the brigade’s early operational experience and reputation for daring combat missions.[10]

That ethos appears in the final letter of paratrooper Eitan Naveh before the battle at Ammunition Hill: “We are about to leave. We paratroopers are ready for any order given to us and are waiting for the decisive moment.”[10] He added, “We will not embarrass the firm.”[10] Naveh was killed while covering fellow soldiers and received the Medal of Valor posthumously.[10]

Israeli special forces have addressed both daily security challenges and preparations for conventional war, frequently alongside regular formations.[2] Their missions have sought to disrupt adversary preparations, kill personnel, destroy equipment or facilities, and force opponents to devote additional resources to security.[2] Long-range intelligence collection, maritime interdiction, and hostage rescue therefore coexist with the less visible work of reconnaissance and support to wider military operations.[2][3]

Rescue work gives these forces a substantial role beyond offensive combat.[7] During its first 40 years, Unit 669 rescued more than 10,000 people in Israel and elsewhere.[17] A historical profile estimated that roughly 70 percent of its activity at the time concerned civilian rescues, rather than presenting that proportion as a permanent operational balance.[7] The unit also received an Air Force commander’s unit citation for its work in the Second Lebanon War.[7]

Changes in recruitment have also reached the most selective formations.[22] In June 2026, the IDF announced that a woman had become the first to complete Sayeret Matkal training, following preliminary screening and a course lasting more than 18 months.[22] Her course was described as equivalent in scope and intensity to the standard male track, with limited adjustments for individual requirements and operational standards.[22] Her eventual placement and operational integration had not yet been determined, and senior commanders were to review the pilot before deciding whether to expand women’s participation in additional special-operations roles.[22]

The early reprisal policy combined deterrence objectives with risks of escalation, and field-unit responses influenced both military and political policy.[23] Unit 101’s raid on Qibya, carried out as retaliation after attacks on Israeli citizens, killed dozens of unarmed civilians.[9]

Elite formations also participated in disputes within the Jewish community: specially trained Palmach volunteers took a leading role in the 1944–45 Saison against Irgun and Lehi, and a Palmach unit under Yitzhak Rabin was used in the destruction of the Irgun weapons ship Altalena in June 1948.[8] Later controversies included civilian deaths during hostage-rescue and maritime operations.[9][4] At Ma’alot in 1974, at least 20 people, many of them children, were killed when Sayeret Matkal stormed a school held by hostage-takers, some during the exchange of fire.[9] The 2010 Shayetet 13 raid on the Mavi Marmara involved civilian casualties and seriously damaged Israel’s international image.[4]

Disagreement has also concerned military policy and the employment of elite personnel.[24][3] In 2003, 13 Sayeret Matkal members submitted a resignation letter to Prime Minister Ariel Sharon refusing to continue assisting what they called “the oppressive reign in the territories.”[24] An assessment of the 2006 Second Lebanon War identified late deployment, insufficient emergency planning, and a gap between special-unit capabilities and their actual use; 24 special operations remained publicly undisclosed.[3] The units generally operated through existing commands rather than the revived Special Operations Headquarters, while broader analysis warned that using lightly armed special units as high-quality infantry could mismatch their training and equipment with battlefield requirements.[3][2]